Nell Cunningham and Lacie Norton
Dance 342- Kinesiology and Related Sciences for Dancers
Pam Musil
Pam Musil
March 29, 2012
Morphological Influences on the Knee Joint
For
our research project, we decided to investigate something that had come to our
attention from time to time. We have
noticed that often those with a heavier body type exhibit signs of genu valgus,
a knee joint deviation causing the distal end of the joint (in this case, the
tibia,) to point away from the midline of the body, creating a “knock-kneed”
effect with space between the ankles. We
have also noticed that those with very thin, willowy body types often exhibit
the opposite knee joint deviation called genu varus, where the distal end
(again, the tibia,) points towards the midline of the body, creating a
“bow-legged” effect with space between the knees. This observation has been made rather
casually over the years, since neither of us knew enough about skeletal
deviations to really know what we were seeing. Upon learning about skeletal
deviations, however, we decided to pursue our observations and perform a small
research study to discover if what we thought we saw as a pattern could
actually be correlated with data.
Our
hypothesis is this: Endomorphic somatotypes exhibit a higher tendency towards
genu valgus whereas ectomorphic somatotypes will exhibit a higher tendency
toward genu varus. Mesomorphic somatotypes will exhibit no statistically
significant tendencies toward either deviation.
In order to prove our hypothesis, we decided to take the following steps;
a.
Preliminary
research on how to quickly and accurately assess somatotype and deviations at
the knee joint in the least intrusive manner possible.
b.
Develop
a short assessment (taken in 5 min or less) for determining general somatotype
and possible tendency toward skeletal deviations at the knee joint.
c.
Perform
the study; gather data with 30-60 subjects found in the Student Wilkinson
Center making efforts to include a wide range of student demographics at BYU.
d.
Correlate
our data and determine if our hypothesis is correct. Write a research report
and summary of our study and results.
A. Preliminary Research
As we began our research, it became clear to us that this
study had not been performed before, or at least to our knowledge had never
been published. We felt that we had
enough information and practice with recognizing and diagnosing genu valgus and
varus to do so quickly and with accuracy, however we did not have much
experience with the process of somatotyping. Our research was then directed to
finding a reliable but simple process of assessing the somatotype of our
subjects.
There was a
wealth of information and journal articles on skeletal knee deviations, but
from the extensive research we did we were unable to find more than one
specific study that had been associated with the morphological categorizing of
body types with a correlation to knee deviations. This particular article was a study that
hypothesized to find whether gender differences and also morphotype would
determine the shape of the knee and change the design of the subjects total
knee arthroplasty (replacement components). (Bellemans abstract) We found other
articles on somatotyping and morphology, but none in conjunction with a study
of skeletal structures at the knee. It seemed
that we would be performing a study on a new idea—that perhaps a person’s body
type could be correlated to influencing possible skeletal knee joint deviations.
First, we learned all we could about the distribution of
body types into general categories, or “somatotyping.” This word was coined by William Herbert
Sheldon, an American psychologist in the 40’s and 50’s who believed that people
could be categorized into three different general body types named after the
three germ layers in embryonic development; the endoderm, the mesoderm, and the
ectoderm (5). These three body types
would exhibit distinct physical characteristics: the endomorph would have a
soft, round, fleshy body, characterized by lack of obvious muscle tone, while
the ectomorph would have a long, linear body with bony prominences displayed
from lack of body fat (Sheldon 5-6). The
mesomorph was categorized somewhere between the two, with a strong, square type
body with developed musculature (Sheldon 5).
Along with physical characteristics, Sheldon also categorized his three
somatotypes with emotional and psychological characteristics as well, creating
even more distinction between the three (8). Sheldon’s work, while much more in
depth than we would be able to go, gave us the foundation we needed to begin to
create our research project.
B. Development of an Assessment
After
familiarizing ourselves with the basic concepts behind somatotyping, we were
faced with having to narrow down this wealth of information into a short survey
that someone could take in a manner of minutes.
After all, we would not be able to bring them into an exam room, weigh
them, test their skinfold measurements, and give them a comprehensive
psychological analysis. We had to find a
way to quickly and accurately assess their bodies and personalities just enough
to categorize them into one of the three morphological types. We also recognized that our study was not
comprehensive on a professional level, and would not be as accurate as a full
graduate study would be. Notwithstanding,
after performing a brief, non-invasive analysis of their knee joint, we could
correlate the two aspects of the data and see if the general patterns we
suspected actually existed. When we
finally found Heath and Carter’s article, “A Modified Somatotype Method,” we
found what we needed—a simplified method for categorizing body types based upon
height/weight ratios and skinfold measurements (64, 71). While we still would
not be able to perform a skinfold test, the height/weight ratio method would
allow us to include some hard, numerical substance in our survey, helping us
add legitimate weight to our psychology-based accessory questions (Heath and
Carter 64, 71). We used Heath and
Carter’s height/weight ratio charts to analyze our own subjects’ morphology,
and are grateful for their previous research that gave us a reliable basis for
our own study (64, 71).
Using the
knowledge gained during our research and also utilizing some of the
somatotyping questions found in our class packet, we developed a final
questionnaire that we felt would meet all of our criteria: it would be quick,
non-invasive for the participants, accurate, reliable, and easy to divide into
the separate groups we were studying (Musil 96-100). We felt that it met the needs of the study
without being overly personal—an important factor given that our subjects were
volunteers. Below is a copy of the
survey given to 54 people during the course of our study;
Age_________
Gender : M F
Weight: _____________ Height : _________________
Yes___ No___ Do you
gain weight easily?
Yes___ No___ Do you
lose weight easily?
Yes___ No___ Do you
normally maintain your weight?
If you do gain weight, where does it
tend to go?
___ waist, chest,
arms, face ____ Hips, legs ____evenly distributed throughout my body
Please rate your flexibility:
____Very
Flexible ____ Somewhat Flexible ____ Not Flexible at all
Yes___ No___ Are you
a morning person?
Yes___No___ Do you
consider yourself to be a thrill-seeker or a risk-taker?
Yes___ No___ Do you
consider yourself to be a relaxed person?
Yes___ No___ Do you
cry easily; are you an emotional person?
Yes___ No___ Are
your hands and feet always cold?
Yes___No___ Do you
consider yourself to be somewhat introverted or introspective?
Do you have knee pain? Yes
No
If yes, please verify where: _______________________________________________
Using this
survey, we were able to begin collecting data from volunteers in order to prove
or disprove our hypothesis (Musil 96-100). Although physical characteristics
were our main focus on determining the subjects’ morphotype we included some
questions of personality traits of each type to see if this added any more pull
toward one morphotype than another. According to Bellemans’ study the physical
characteristics of each morphotype are considered valid and are used on many
professional levels, whereas the psychological characteristics are much more
controversial among behavioral scientists (Bellemans discussion). With this in mind we did not give the personality
trait questions as much weight as the physical criteria.
C. Collecting the Data
We took these surveys over
the space of two days and drew our subjects from the plethora of people sitting
in the Student Wilkinson Center on BYU campus.
We were able to survey and collect information from fifty-four subjects.
We began the process by randomly picking someone and asking them if they would
be willing to fill out our short survey.
After completing the questionnaire, we would kindly ask them to stand and
we analyzed the skeletal structure of their knees and recorded our observations,
being careful to ask the subject to correct for genu recurvatum, eliminating
the possibility of false genu varus.
Insofar as we were able, we made efforts to include equal numbers of
obvious body types, as well as both genders and as many age ranges as we were able. Below is a summary of the surveyed subjects’
demographics:
Age Range: 14-49 years old Mean Age: 22.7 years old Median Age: 21 years old
Height Range: 82-61 Mean Height: 68 inches Median
Height: 68 in
Weight Range: 107-265 lbs Mean Weight:
160.4 lbs Median Weight: 150
lbs
After
completing the survey portion of our study, we began classifying the subjects
according to the qualifications mentioned previously. With each survey we considered all the
information given by the subject as well as their score according to the point
system determined by the height/weight charts developed by Heath and Carter (64,
71). Using all available information, we
came to a collective decision regarding each subject’s somatotype for this
specific study. We then correlated this
information with the observations we took of each subject’s knees and any
possible deviations they exhibited.
Below is a table summarizing the final data collected, as well as a bar
graph to allow greater visual understanding of the data.
Genu Varus
|
Genu Valgus
|
Neutral
|
Genu Recurvatum
|
|
Ectomorph
|
11
|
0
|
7
|
10
|
Mesomorph
|
10
|
2
|
8
|
10
|
Endomorph
|
2
|
7
|
6
|
4
|
D. Summary of Results
As can be seen by our results, we were very successful in
proving our hypothesis, admittedly with some surprises. First of all, we were apparently correct in
supposing those exhibiting an ectomorphic body type would have a greater
statistical likelihood of developing a genu varus than any other deviation. Also, those displaying an endomorphic body
type show a much higher likelihood of developing a genu valgus than the other
types. One thing we had not predicted
was that those exhibiting a mesomorphic body type would have such a high
occurrence of genu varus; we had thought they would be mostly neutral. Nevertheless, we were pleased to see that our
hypothesis had some validity.
It was interesting to perform the study—this was a first
experience for both of us. It required
us to do a lot more preparation work than we originally expected, but the
process was really fun. Because we both
had an interest in the subject, the things we read and studied were interesting
and valid. We enjoyed the process of developing
our survey, and were surprised at how easily we found participants. We believe that since our questionnaire was
simple, quick, and easy to take, people didn’t mind our taking a few minutes of
their time. Also, when we asked them to
stand to check their knees for deviations, they actually became interested in
what we were looking for. We had quite a
few of the participants ask questions about their knees—why they were shaped
the way they were, or if their deviations would pose future problems. We enjoyed getting to share a little of what
we know with those who were interested.
We felt that our study was very successful, but we
noticed that there were several limitations to it. Because we were limited to just a few moments
in a public space, we couldn’t necessarily be as thorough as we would have
liked. If the subject was wearing baggy
pants, we couldn’t make our own observations on their knees and instead had to
rely on the subject giving us accurate information on whether or not their
knees or ankles were touching. Also,
when asking the participants to stand with their medial malleoli touching,
occasionally their thick-soled shoes prevented them from doing so. Because we did this study at a university,
our age range was somewhat limited, with half of our subjects ages 21 and under,
leading to skewed data. In an ideal
world, we would have performed the survey and knee analysis in an exam room
where we could weigh and measure the participants accurately and really take
the time to see their knees. Obviously,
since we only could survey fifty-four people, our study was limited in scope
and would need further testing.
Even though our study was not perfect, we feel proud of
the work that we did. We postulated a
hypothesis, studied the different aspects of it, formulated an effective test
method, and gathered relevant data that helped to prove the hypothesis’ validity. We feel that it was highly successful,
especially as undergraduate students, and would love to see it pursued more
fully and professionally by someone in a position to do so. Perhaps someday one of us will be able to
carry the study to a more complete conclusion.
In the meantime, we are happy to say according to our study there
appears to be sound evidence that a person’s body morphology has a direct correlation
with the kind of skeletal knee deviations they may have.
Bibliography
Bellemans, Johan, Carpentier, Karel, et al. “The John Insall Award; Both Morophotype and Gender Influence the Shape
of the Knee in Patients Undergoing TKA.” Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research 468 (2010): 29-36. Web. 20 Feb. 2012.
Heath,
Barbara, Carter, J. E. “A Modified
Somatotype Method.” American Journal
of Physical Anthropology 27.1 (1967): 57-74. Print.
Sheldon,
William, Stevens, S. S., and Tucker, W. B. The
Varieties of Human Physique: an Introduction to Constitutional Psychology. Darien:
Harper & Row. 1940. Print.
Musil,
Pam. Kinesiology and Related Sciences for
Dancers. Provo: Brigham Young University. 2012. 96-100. Print.
Janelle Cunningham
Cathy Black
Dance 461- Dance History from
1850
April 1, 2012
The
Father of “American” Ballet
George
Balanchine has often been called the father of modern ballet. His choreography was a dramatic departure
from the opulent, extravagant story ballets that ubiquitously filled the
decades preceding his entrance on the world ballet stage. His minimalistic set design and costuming
styles, as well as his endless supply of long legs and lines created quite a
stir among ballet aficionados and began to revolutionize the classical dance
form. As a choreographer, he was
amazingly long-lived; his career spanned just over six decades before his death
in 1983, with the production of 425 works in the course of his lifetime. As a Georgian, raised in Russia, his
classical training gave him credibility as a ballet master, but most of his
life was spent in the United States and he never considered himself an
outsider. He loved the idea of America,
with its opportunities and prospects for individual achievement, and he
choreographed several ballets that displayed the glory of this nation. He thought of himself as a true “American,”
one who displayed the independent spirit of America and embraced the culture,
ideals, and character of the country he so loved.
In
the 1950’s, the United States was recovering from a tumultuous thirty years of
war. The end of World War II in 1945
left the country reeling from so many years of fighting, and Americans were
eager to get back to “regular life.” In
the years that followed the end of the war, the United States went through a
dramatic re-organization that brought stability back to the nation. Old fashioned values were embraced once
again, with families knitting tightly together and with a deep-rooted belief in
the goodness of America. This intense
nationalism manifested itself in many ways—the patriotism and fervor of the
Eisenhower administration and the “I like Ike” campaign, the xenophobia and
fear of communism displayed in the years of the Cold War, even the youngsters
and their new “rock and roll” music seemed to center around Americana and the
ideals of the nation. As this patriotic
zeal swept the country, it pervaded the New York City Ballet as well, and more
particularly, the mind of its director and choreographer. Balanchine love America, and one can only
assume that he wished to participate in the celebration as well. In this decade of national pride, Balanchine
created two ballets that reflected the joy of the people in a unique way. In his ballets “Western Symphony” and “Stars
and Stripes,” Balanchine used western themes and patriotic music to reflect the
fervent pro-American attitudes of the post-World War II decade.
“Western Symphony”- 1954
“Western
Symphony” has the distinction of being Balanchine’s first American ballet
hit. (Balanchine Variations 59) Audiences had never seen anything like this
before—dancing around in cowboy clothes and saloon girl dresses was an
aesthetic heretofore reserved for western movies and popular musical theater. The score, an arrangement of good old
American folk tunes orchestrated by the American composer Hershey Kay, was in
stark contrast to anything Balanchine had done before, departing from his
penchant for Stravinsky and other Avant Garde musicians. Ballet had simply never been done this way,
with American music and a classical dance vocabulary.
The
early 1950’s was an important time for the New York City Ballet. The war years had ended and they needed to
draw the public in to find new supporters of the arts. They needed the American public to embrace a
style that was largely seen as European, and they needed them to support it
financially, by attending their performances.
In this critical time, Lincoln Kirstein encouraged Balanchine to explore
ideas of Americana—something that choreographers like Agnes de Mille and Martha
Graham in the modern dance world had already begun to utilize. (Kassing 196, 205) Kirstein and Balanchine’s initial attempt, a
piece called “Alma Mater” depicting a football game at Yale, was largely unsuccessful. (Balanchine Variations 60) They needed to find a way to connect with
their audience’s emotion—their history, their love of freedom, their exuberance
for life. When the New York City Ballet
first performed “Western Symphony” in 1954, audiences were left calling for
more. Balanchine had struck a nerve with
his tribute to the great American old west.
The
ballet opens upon a scene true to Balanchine’s aesthetic ideal—it’s definitely
old west, but simplistic and clean, without a lot of clutter. The dancers enter, the men in cowboy hats and
chaps with the ladies in short, sassy saloon girl dresses. The dance begins and it is immediately
apparent that this is a new style of ballet.
The dance vocabulary is familiar, with the dancers performing truly
classical ballet steps, but in a style entirely new. The men swagger across the stage, thumbs
hooked through belt loops, tipping their hats to the ladies. The ballerinas are coy and playful, tempting
the rugged cowmen with flirtatious glances over their shoulders. A ballerina does a beautiful penché en arabesque but she does it
while giving a jaunty wave to her manly pursuers. Here we see one of the things that made the Balanchine
as a choreographer so famous; he had a way of putting life into his
dancers. He pushed them to the limits of
their technical ability, and then tossed in a generous sprinkling of
character. The men epitomize the ideal
of the all-American cowboy, and the women are as seductive and spirited as one
would expect of a truly American girl.
Balanchine
even pays tribute to the dances that originated in America by utilizing aspects
of folk styles like square dance and social dancing in his choreography. The dancers do-si-do around one another
before launching themselves back into full-fledged ballet and the energy never
seems to decrease. We watch as a cowboy
courts his lady, the ladies do a little saloon dance, much to the glee of the
men observing, and we even get to witness a shy, gawky young man who finally
gets his girl. The score, arranged by
Hershey Kay, is thoroughly charming and utterly engaging—you can’t help but
bounce in your seat. Kay, who grew up in
Philadelphia, had a special knack for music that draws an audience in. His signature style is music with incredibly
patriotic verve, and Balanchine used him several times over the course of his
career for pieces like “Stars and Stripes” and “Union Jack.” (“Hershey Kay”) His work in “Western Symphony” provides a way
for the dancers to really connect to what it was that Balanchine was trying to achieve. They smile, they flirt, and they dance with the
joy and abandon that many Americans associate with their frontier past and
musical heritage. By employing a few
folk elements, a truly American musical score, and a great deal of spunk,
Balanchine managed to create an “American” ballet for American audiences, one
with the power to draw in new supporters and keep them coming.
“Stars and Stripes”- 1958
Four
years after the success of “Western Symphony,” Balanchine decided that it was
time to try again. When “Stars and
Stripes” first premiered, there were some who were skeptical—after all, John
Philip Sousa is for marching bands, not ballerinas. (More Balanchine Variations 58) Also, Balanchine was creating a piece based
upon the ideas of American military and patriotic pride—how could he do that as
a foreigner? He paid the skeptics no
mind; after all, he considered himself first and foremost an American. He again called upon the talents of Hershey
Kay to orchestrate and arrange the music, counting on the vigorous rhythms and
exciting melodies to draw the audience in, since this was still the 50’s and
America was still intensely patriotic.
Choreographing a ballet to a military march was a risk, but it was one
that succeeded; “Stars and Stripes” is still one of Balanchine’s most enduring
ballets, and one that modern audiences can still see performed.
Unlike
the folksy, ‘down-home’ feel of “Western Symphony,” “Stars and Stripes” is
clean cut and snappy. Soldiers and
majorettes fill the stage, as well as literal stars and stripes, on everything
from the vests to the hats to the background.
Balanchine relies heavily on lines and formations in this ballet,
bringing to mind grand military parades.
The dancers rally in pyramids, rows, columns, and big, rotating circles. The movements of the dancers are also
militaristic, with turned in passé, high
stepping marches, and the ever-present salute.
The energy is incredibly high throughout the ballet, with the male
dancers leaping about in apparent defiance of the laws of gravity, and the
ballerinas kicking their legs up as sassily as any Rockette. Needless to say, the dance maintains its
ballet roots—after all, this is a Balanchine ballet. The meaning, however, is clear: this is a
ballet to celebrate America.
Balanchine
uses clear aspects of traditional ballet organization in “Stars and Stripes,”
particularly in the fourth ‘campaign,’ the grande
pas de deux. (More Balanchine
Variations 63-64) First, the couple
performs a classical adagio followed by incredibly high-energy solos and
resolving in a coda that leaves you on the edge of your seat. The male solo is an amazing feat of
athleticism and endurance; the audience can hardly believe he isn’t attached to
wires! His jumps bring to mind a toy
soldier, with flexed feet and high Italian changements,
all the while smiling and saluting like any good soldier. The female solo is also a thrill—her fouette turns in particular are
breathtaking. The effortless transitions
from grace to strength and back again are what give this ballet its power. The juxtaposition of classical ballet dance
technique and military themes are inspiring to see, and the addition of music
as truly “American” as Sousa gives the ballet its emotion and command of the
audience. For Americans, this ballet
brings to mind the Fourth of July, fireworks, and the excitement of a patriotic
parade.
The
most exciting part of the ballet occurs at the climax and finale to the piece
of Sousa’s music that is perhaps best known, “Stars and Stripes Forever.” The entire company of dancers assembles in
rows towards the rear of the stage, and, as the music slowly crescendos, they
begin to slowly move forward in a series of high kicks and strong marches. The dancers raise their hands to their foreheads
in salute, and suddenly, an enormous flag rises in the back of the stage. It continues to rise up through the end of
the ballet, eventually lost from sight behind the lowering curtain. The effects is almost magical—the audience is
filled with pride and love for their beloved country as the dancers perform to
one of the most uniquely American pieces of music in history. As that flag fills the background, one cannot
help but be drawn into the spectacle that Balanchine has created. The strength expressed by the dancers, their
smiles, their salutes, their respect for this nation is palpable, and chills
are felt by all who watch. Emotions run
high as the ballet ends, a stunning example of American patriotism in all its
joyful devotion. Truly this is the work of
a proud American, no matter where he was born.
George
Balanchine was the father of American ballet in many ways. He was the first world-famous ballet
choreographer to produce works in the modern United States. He formed the first major professional ballet
company in America, the New York City Ballet.
With the help of Lincoln Kirstein, he was responsible for shaping some
of the United States’ most talented, best known classical dancers. On top of all this, however, he was the first
person to take the strong, patriotic attitudes of the mid-twentieth century and
translate them into a classical dance form.
Modern dancers had begun exploring the ideas of Americana several years
earlier, but it was because of Balanchine that ballet began to be seen as a
vital, living art form, not an ancient, dried-up technique. He found a way to connect the common American
man with an art form usually seen as being ‘upper-class.’ He managed to express the collective ideals
of a nation of individualists, explorers, adventurers, and believers in the
human spirit.
Through his
works “Western Symphony” and “Stars and Stripes,” Balanchine successfully
created two ballets based on entirely American themes, with American music, by
American composers. Their expression of
joy, enthusiasm, exuberance, and gusto made them popular in a decade of
nationalism, but they are no less important today. The ballets continue to thrill new
generations of ballet audiences, filling them with the same strong emotions of
pride that characterized their respective debuts. While the steps were classical, the attitudes
were pertinent and relatable, and allowed the timeless art of ballet to explore
new aesthetic territories. With just a
few deft choreographic choices, a Georgian, raised in Russia, gave America
another reason to celebrate their patriotic pride and rich national heritage.
Works
Cited
“Choreography by George Balanchine, Vol. 1”. Directed by Merrill Brockway. Nonesuch. 2004.
DVD.
“Choreography by George Balanchine, Vol. 2”. Directed by Merrill Brockway. Nonesuch.
2004. DVD.
George Balanchine Foundation. Choreography
by George Balalchine: A Catalogue of Works.
1984. Print.
Goldner, Nancy. Balanchine
Variations. Gainesville: University
Press of Florida. 2008. Print.
Goldner, Nancy. More Balanchine
Variations. Gainesville: University
Press of Florida. 2011. Print.
“Hershey Kay.” Wikipedia.org. March 24, 2012.
“John Philip Sousa.”
Wikipdia.org. March 24, 2012
Kassing, Gayle. History of
Dance: An Interactive Arts Approach.
Champaign: Human Kinetics.
2007. Print.
Lingg, Ann M. John Philip
Sousa. New York: Henry Holt.
1954. Print.
Taper, Bernard. Balanchine: A
Biography. New York: Times
Books. 1984. Print.
www.balanchine.com. The George Balanchine Trust. Web
www.balanchine.org. The George Balanchine Foundation. Web.
